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Literary modernism, or modernist literature, has its origins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in Europe and North America. Some philosophers, like Georg Lukacs, theorized that literary modernism had its origins in the philosophy of Walter Benjamin. Modernism is characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional styles of poetry and verse. Modernists experimented with literary form and expression, adhering to Ezra Pound's maxim to "Make it new".〔Pound, Ezra, ''Make it New'', Essays, London, 1935〕 The modernist literary movement was driven by a conscious desire to overturn traditional modes of representation and express the new sensibilities of their time. The horrors of the First World War saw the prevailing assumptions about society reassessed. Thinkers such as Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx questioned the rationality of mankind.〔 ==Introduction== In the 1880s increased attention was given to the idea that it was necessary to push aside previous norms entirely, instead of merely revising past knowledge in light of contemporary techniques. The theories of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), and Ernst Mach (1838–1916) influenced early Modernist literature. Mach argued that the mind had a fundamental structure, and that subjective experience was based on the interplay of parts of the mind in ''The Science of Mechanics'' (1883). Freud's first major work was ''Studies on Hysteria'' (with Josef Breuer) (1895). According to Freud, all subjective reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived. As a philosopher of science, Ernst Mach was a major influence on logical positivism, and through his criticism of Isaac Newton, a forerunner of Einstein's theory of relativity. Many prior theories about epistemology argued that external and absolute reality could impress itself, as it were, on an individual, as, for example, John Locke's (1632–1704) empiricism, which saw the mind beginning as a ''tabula rasa'', a blank slate (''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', 1690). Freud's description of subjective states, involving an unconscious mind full of primal impulses and counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions, was combined by Carl Jung (1875–1961) with the idea of the collective unconscious, which the conscious mind either fought or embraced. While Charles Darwin's work remade the Aristotelian concept of "man, the animal" in the public mind, Jung suggested that human impulses toward breaking social norms were not the product of childishness, or ignorance, but rather derived from the essential nature of the human animal. Another major precursor of modernism〔Robert Gooding-Williams, "Nietzsche's Pursuit of Modernism" ''New German Critique'', No. 41, Special Issue on the Critiques of the Enlightenment. (Spring - Summer, 1987), pp. 95-108.〕 was Friedrich Nietzsche, especially his idea that psychological drives, specifically the "will to power", were more important than facts, or things. Henri Bergson (1859–1941), on the other hand, emphasized the difference between scientific clock time and the direct, subjective, human experience of time〔Diané Collinson, ''Fifty Major Philosophers: A Reference Guide'', p.131.〕 His work on time and consciousness "had a great influence on twentieth-century novelists," especially those modernists who used the stream of consciousness technique, such as Dorothy Richardson for the book ''Pointed Roofs'' (1915), James Joyce for ''Ulysses'' (1922) and Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) for ''Mrs Dalloway'' (1925) and ''To the Lighthouse'' (1927).〔''The Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentieth Century'', ed. Linda R. Williams. London: Bloomsbury, 1992, pp. 108-9.〕 Also important in Bergson's philosophy was the idea of ''élan vital'', the life force, which "brings about the creative evolution of everything"〔Collinson, 132.〕 His philosophy also placed a high value on intuition, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect.〔 These various thinkers were united by a distrust of Victorian positivism and certainty. Modernism as a literary movement can be seen also, as a reaction to industrialization, urbanization and new technologies. Important literary precursors of Modernism were: Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–81) (''Crime and Punishment'' (1866), ''The Brothers Karamazov'' (1880)); Walt Whitman (1819–92) (''Leaves of Grass'') (1855–91); Charles Baudelaire (1821–67) (''Les Fleurs du mal''), Rimbaud (1854–91) (''Illuminations'', 1874); August Strindberg (1849–1912), especially his later plays, including, the trilogy ''To Damascus'' 1898–1901, ''A Dream Play'' (1902), ''The Ghost Sonata'' (1907). Initially, some modernists fostered a utopian spirit, stimulated by innovations in anthropology, psychology, philosophy, political theory, physics and psychoanalysis. The poets of the Imagist movement, founded by Ezra Pound in 1912 as a new poetic style, gave Modernism its early start in the 20th century,〔Pratt, William. ''The Imagist Poem, Modern Poetry in Miniature'' (Story Line Press, 1963, expanded 2001). ISBN 1-58654-009-2.〕 and were characterized by a poetry that favoured a precision of imagery, brevity and Free verse.〔 This idealism, however, ended, with the outbreak of World War I, and writers created more cynical works that reflected a prevailing sense of disillusionment. Many modernist writers also shared a mistrust of institutions of power such as government and religion, and rejected the notion of absolute truths. Modernist works such as T. S. Eliot's ''The Waste Land'' (1922), were increasingly self-aware, introspective, and explored the darker aspects of human nature. The term modernism covers a number of related, and overlapping, artistic and literary movements, including Imagism, Symbolism, Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, Expressionism, and Dada. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Literary modernism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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